How to Combat Our Susceptibility to Misinformation

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With so much information bombarding our consciousness practically every minute of the day, it's difficult to filter what information to give weight to and what to dismiss. Even more difficult is detecting whether or not that information is reliable.

According to a series of new reports by the American Psychological Association (APA) (2023a, 2023b, 2023c), when we receive new information, our focus isn't typically on assessing its accuracy, but rather on understanding it, then deciding what we're going to do with it. And what we decide depends a great deal on whether we perceive the information as plausible using a variety of contextual clues and underlying biases, which unfortunately tend to propagate the spread of misinformation.

For example, research has shown that we're more inclined to believe misinformation when:

• it comes from a group or a source that we feel aligned with (in-group sources).
• it comes from a source that our experiences tell us is credible.
• its content generates strong emotion within us, especially fear or outrage.
• the information depicts an adversary or out-group in a negative light.
• we're exposed to the information repeatedly (APA, 2023a).

The APA also notes that "susceptibility to misinformation shows individual differences based on experience" (2023a). Individual factors that appear to reduce susceptibility include educational attainment, analytical reasoning skills, and numeracy skills. Anxiety, on the other hand, tends to increase susceptibility. Finally, although older adults appear to be more adept at identifying misinformation than younger adults, they're also more prone to see and share it on social media (2023a).

Although these effects were found to be modest and more research is needed, current findings support the use of four interventions found to be useful in countering misinformation (APA, 2023b).

1. Debunking. Debunking is essentially fact-checking. It's the correction of misinformation after the information has been received. Debunking is most effective when the correction provides as many verifiable facts as possible that refute the misinformation.
2. Prebunking. Prebunking is akin to psychological inoculation. It's accomplished by alerting people in advance to the common techniques used by bad actors to get people to buy into and spread misinformation. Prebunking typically involves some type of warning (e.g., "Be aware that some people may try to manipulate you by saying...") immediately followed by factual refutation of the misinformation, such as "This information is false because [facts offered]."
3. Literacy Training. Knowledge and awareness of the forms of misinformation and the common techniques used to fool people can be effective in combating the belief in and spread of misinformation. Literacy training can accomplish this by improving people's skill at judging the soundness and reliability of the information they receive.
4. Nudging. Nudging is “small environmental changes meant to alter behavior in predictable and positive ways” (APA, 2023b). There are several types of "nudges" that can be used to discourage the dissemination of misinformation, including “accuracy nudges," which encourage people to consider the reliability of the information before deciding to share it; "social norms nudges," which put the spotlight on community practices related to reporting information; and "motivational nudges," which positively reinforce people for being as accurate as possible when sharing information.

The APA reports that when these interventions are repeated over time or when they're used in combination, their effectiveness is enhanced.

In addition to these tools, and in light of the ongoing risk of misinformation to public health and well-being, the APA also published a consensus statement intended to advise the media, scientists, and policy-makers about misinformation and how to combat it from a psychological perspective (APA, 2023c). (For the full report, see Using Psychological Science to Understand and Fight Health Misinformation: An APA Consensus Statement.)

However, combating misinformation is not solely the responsibility of news organizations, professionals, and political leaders. As individuals, we too need to take ownership of the role we play in believing and disseminating false information. This requires that we recognize our own cognitive biases and incorporate strategies into our "information consumption" habits to effectively counter them.

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Cognitive biases are human tendencies "that skew or distort decision-making processes in ways that may make their outcomes inaccurate or suboptimal" (Korteling, Gerritsma, and Toet, 2021). Cognitive biases come in many forms, but some of the most common types related to the belief and spread of misinformation include:

• Herd mentality - the tendency to adopt the beliefs or behaviors of others (often those in the majority or in groups we align with) rather than using credible sources to make independent judgments (French, Storey, and Wallace, 2023)
• Confirmation bias - the propensity to notice, interpret, highlight, and remember information that aligns with our beliefs and expectations rather than vetted information (French, Storey, and Wallace, 2023; Zollo, 2019)
• Framing bias - the tendency to make decisions based on whether the information is framed in a positive or negative light, rather than using reason or facts (French, Storey, and Wallace, 2023)

Fortunately, there are several strategies we can use to combat these biases and more effectively defend ourselves against misinformation, all of which involve conscious effort, thoughtful reflection, and a healthy dose of skepticism when presented with new information.

1. Automatically consider and investigate alternative possibilities about any claims you hear, particularly those that align with your views and feelings on the topic.
2. Be particularly wary of repetitive claims that favor positions or groups you identify with until you obtain fact-checked information that supports the claims.
3. Avoid automatic acceptance of compelling verbal, written, or visual stories with simple narratives or stories that elicit strong emotions unless and until you have vetted data to support their truth.
4. Don't be afraid to question information received from others to determine what data the source is relying upon (this doesn't have to be done in a confrontational way, but instead in a neutral, inquisitive manner).

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By committing to regularly practicing these strategies, we can effectively train our brain to be intelligent and savvy consumers of reliable information and counteract tendencies to accept misinformation as fact before its proven to be so. Although we're all vulnerable to misinformation, awareness, knowledge, and concerted effort can go a long way in remediating the negative, wide-ranging, and often harmful impact of misinformation in our lives and social circles.