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Key points
- We all talk to ourselves, but most of us could derive more benefits from this process.
- Self-talk takes many forms, but its content is often negative and repetitive.
- Seeing the content of self-talk in terms of processes of self-regulation can be helpful.
- Tools are available to help to convert negative self-talk into an asset.
In J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, Gandalf, after talking to himself aloud in the presence of others, defends the practice as, “a habit of the old,” to speak to the wisest person available. If you are like most people, young or old, you most likely speak to yourself frequently, probably more often silently than aloud and, much of the time, you may not find the input you are receiving to be particularly wise.
Self-talk may be used as an umbrella term for various forms of self-directed speech. When silent, it has been referred to as internal (or inner, or interior) monologue, speech, or discourse. These terms refer mainly to conscious thought in the form of words.
Self-talk is made possible by what is known as the phonological loop, a component of working memory in which information stored in a speech-based form is articulated covertly. Negatively-valenced self-talk has been of particular interest in psychology. Examples include automatic/intrusive thoughts, rumination, and worry (Watkins & Roberts, 2020).
The Many Flavors Of Self-Talk
Self-talk constructs vary in terms of attributes. Rumination (from the word for masticating a cud, hence, “chewing over”) and worry usually have a negative valence, and consist of relatively long, thematically-related sequences. By contrast, while automatic/intrusive thoughts are also often negatively valenced, they are more isolated and terse. Rumination and worry are thought, at times, to be at least partially under conscious control, whereas automatic/intrusive thoughts are not.
Another feature of self-talk is its degree of repetitiveness. Repetitiveness may refer to consistency in the content of self-talk within a single episode, or to the recurrence of such episodes over time. The term “perseverative cognition” is sometimes used to refer to this characteristic.
Still another feature of self-talk is its perceived utility. Positive self-talk is typically viewed by the person as at least potentially helpful. It is used for its potential benefits in psychotherapy and sports. When first adopted for use it is conscious and deliberate. Over time, it may become more automatic. Even certain forms of negative self-talk are helpful at times, or thought to be, for example, in connection with coping or planning. Nonetheless, negative self-talk is often undesired and may not represent an optimal coping strategy.
Negative Self-Talk Can Be Maladaptive In A Number Of Ways
Negative self-talk has been linked to mental health problems (Borkovec, 1985; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008), stress-related physiological activity that may promote physical disease (Busch et al., 2017), underachievement in academic settings and athletic competition, and sub-optimal decision-making, among other outcomes. These undesirable effects may be associated with a tendency for negative self-talk to diminish attentional bandwidth or control, working memory, and other cognitive functions.
A Useful Way to Think About Negative Self-Talk: Self-Regulation
Negative self-talk may be thought of as a potentially maladaptive form of self-regulation. Self-regulation here refers to processes whereby we monitor and evaluate our behavior or state of mind or body. This fits because negative self-talk can function as negative feedback, as it identifies a discrepancy between an internal standard (goal) and accomplishment (goal attainment) (Carver & Scheier, 2002). Note that the “negative” in negative feedback refers not to unpleasant affect (though this may be present), but to the role of feedback in the reduction of the gap between goal and attainment.
In this manner, negative self-talk can be maladaptive if it impairs the person’s capacity to perform corrective action that reduces the discrepancy between behavior/state and internal standard and/or leads to other negative consequences, such as stress and diminished cognitive functioning.
For example, in the Watkins and Roberts (2020) control-theory model, rumination arises from the perception that progress toward a valued goal has been inadequate. This conception of rumination is similar to certain definitions of worry (Borkovec, 1985), except that rumination is concerned with the past whereas worry is concerned with the future (e.g., anticipated goal-outcome discrepancies). When rumination and worry signal the perception or anticipation of failure to achieve a goal, they are often not helpful, and may work against goal attainment.
How To Turn Negative Self-Talk to Your Advantage
It is no simple task to eliminate or even just reduce negative self-talk. Recognizing recurring content in worry, rumination, and negative/intrusive thoughts, and seeing its potential implications for self-regulation, is a good first step toward improvement.
Phone apps and other tools are out there that purport to be based on clinical research, embodying cognitive-behavioral principles and specific techniques. As an informed, skeptical consumer, careful selection of such products and systematic self-experimentation may not only reduce negative self-talk but facilitate progress regarding underlying discrepancies between your goals and your current self-appraisal. Note that this may involve progress toward goal achievement, goal modification, and/or acceptance of a certain amount of goal-achievement discrepancy.
It's best to be patient in this. Self-regulation is a journey, some might say a quest, that begins with the first step.
References
Borkovec, T. D. (1985). Worry: A potentially valuable concept. Behaviour research and therapy, 23(4), 481-482.
Busch, L. Y., Pössel, P., & Valentine, J. C. (2017). Meta-analyses of cardiovascular reactivity to rumination: A possible mechanism linking depression and hostility to cardiovascular disease. Psychological Bulletin, 143(12), 1378–1394. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000119
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Control processes and self-organization as complementary principles underlying behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(4), 304–315. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0604_05
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking Rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x
Watkins, E. R., & Roberts, H. (2020). Reflecting on rumination: Consequences, causes, mechanisms and treatment of rumination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 127, 103573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103573
Tolkien, J. R. R. (2012). “The Lord of the Rings: One Volume”, p.169, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
